作者：Altug Isigan

一些理论

根据丹麦语言学家Louis Hjelmslev的观点，语言共分为两个层面：

表达层面

内容层面

表达层面指代的是能指，而内容层面则指代意指。

这两个层面各拥有一种形式和实质，即：

表达形式

表达实质

内容形式

内容实质

符号是能指与意指（游戏邦注：不能与直接引用相混淆，这意味着它们是有组织地连接在一起）综合，即意味着每个符号都具有内容和表达层面，并且每个层面也都具有自己的形式和实质。

将石头剪刀布作为一种语言

表达形式包含了那些被认为是语言能指数组的物化形式。就像在剪刀石头布中，这种能指数组便包括“石头”，“剪刀”，“布”这三种手势。

表达实质则是用于塑造语言能指数组的物质实体。在石头剪刀布中也就是玩家的手。

内容实质是一些意义目录，即语言的意指内容。就像在石头剪刀布中，“石头”，“布”和“剪刀”这三种元素所代表的含义。

内容形式是根据内部顺序而对这些意义做出排列，即创造出一个可比较且可替换的价值系统。在石头剪刀布中，这一系统将阻挡着“石头”，“布”和“剪刀”之间所存在的不及物关系。的确，从价值来看，“石头”，“剪刀”和“布”能够相互取代，它们也可以基于各自的优势而相互比较。

内容层面可以是完全虚构的。创造者可以构造出一些内容实质（如“吃豆人”，“Pinky”，“迷宫，”或“点”等），然后赋予这些内容形式，即设计一个价值系统去定义这些实质之间的关系。表达层面必须具有物质性，因为只有通过物质形式，也就是游戏世界及其潜在的价值系统（我们必须评估它们的关系并理解结果状态），所有内容才能真正呈现在人们面前。通常情况下，为了更好地“阐述”内容层面和价值系统（设置了各种内容之间的关系），我们可以使用规则手册或教程。但是放在游戏过程中都体现着相同的目的，因为我们总是能够通过能指链条（从它们的连接方式，以及因为这种连接而促使游戏状态改变来看）推断出内容层面，以及其中的元素间的关系。

连接和意指

当玩家摆出“石头”的手势时，他便同时激发了形式和实质两个层面：他的手是塑造“石头”手势的实质，因此将推动着关于这一语言的有效信号。这种形式不只是指代着“石头”这一元素，它同时也赋予了“石头”价值，即基于内部系统的维护，它已经因为与其它元素建立起来的关系而具有自己的价值，也就是指元素与元素之间的不及物关系，这是我玩家在评估不同手势时必须参考的规则。

当对方玩家伸出相反的手势时（也就是“布”），玩家脑中便会产生一种连接符号，告诉他们：“石头vs,布，出布的玩家获胜。”

《Lizard Spock》

RPS Lizard Spock(from fashionablygeek)

石头剪刀布的升级版《RPS Lizard Spock》在现有的石头剪刀布系统（或语言）中添加了Lizard和Spock符号，并同时添加了这两个元素的能指和意指数组。在表达层面上只添加了新的形式（即“lizard”和“spock”所代表的手势），而表达实质——手还是保持原样。但是在内容层面上就没这么简单了，特别是在考虑内容形式时。从内容实质来看，只是添加了“lizard”和“spock”这两种元素，但是真正显著的变化来自内部系统，即结合现有的元素而创造出可替换且可比较的价值。当你在游戏过程中进行连接时，便会出现新的“可读取”且具有意义的符号序列。

规则类别

实质规则

这一规则指代的是那些能够承载系统内部能指内容形式的规则。例如在职业体育运动中所出现的一些严格的规则，包括重量，半径，气压以及足球的材质等。但是，孩童也会使用任何他们所看到的任何物体，如易拉罐作为“足球”。而在石头剪刀布中，人们则会自然地使用自己的手作为承载物/实质内容。

形式规则

这一规则指代的是形式所控制的参数和特征——为了扮演好系统中的有效能指。形式总是会受到标准的支配（就像在职业象棋中），但是也会因为类型和主题的变化而变化（如以《星际大战》为主题的象棋对抗）。通常情况下，类型和主题的改变将会进一步挑战支配着形式的标准。就像在石头剪刀布中，只有3种手势具有不同的功能才能被当成一种形式/能指内容。

内容规则

这一规则指代的是游戏中的生存者与事件的范围。如实时策略游戏中的单位数组；打斗游戏中的踢或闪躲等行动数组。在石头剪刀布中，内容规则将生存者的数量限制为3人（也就是“石头，”“布”和“剪刀”），而行动则只有“攻击”。

价值规则

这一规则组指代的是围绕着操作者而进行分配的游戏元素。这一规则将根据内容元素之间的关系以及事态的发展而明确价值系统。在石头剪刀布中只存在一个操作者（即“>”），从而明确了“石头，”“剪刀，”“布”之间的不及物关系。也就是当玩家伸出了两个不同的手势时，他们便会对此进行评估，并从中明确这一事态的结果。

联系规则

这一规则指代的是那些能够与内容联系在一起的形式。就像在石头剪刀布中，手势“V”便是代表“剪刀”。许多游戏在联系元素上都非常精准，力图避免让玩家产生误解。然而也有许多游戏特别强调了“丑角牌”或“万能牌”，即希望玩家能够将这一形式/能指与自己理想中的游戏元素联系在一起。

连接规则

这一规则指代的是能指必须与事件和空间连接在一起。这一规则在能指的基础上添加了一种顺序，从而让玩家能够更清楚地理解事态的发展。这也可以称作组成规则。从广义上来讲，标准的足球游戏要求玩家必须在规定的足球场中以及90分钟时间内完成自己的行动。相反的是，象棋则会提供给玩家关于空间和时间的不同选择。

空间中的连接必须具有双重性：一方面，这是一种能够提供连接的基本框架的格式，就像一张纸或画架，其中必定存在某种类型的表达形式（游戏邦注：如字母，单词，线，点等）能够被当成表达的一部分。另一方面，它还必须指定这一格式下的能指的放置规则，也就是必须存在某种衡量标准能够确保能指是根据特定“刻度线”或组成元素进行放置：例如在象棋中，玩家能够在棋盘这一“格式”下随处移动兵卒，但是必须将其放置在方形范围内，并且不能放置在两个方形的交叉线上；如果未能明确这一标准，玩家便难以明确能指之间的关系，从而搞不清楚游戏的发展状态。

不管是不同的规则类别，还是同一类别中的规则都应该“相互协作”，共同塑造出游戏中的生存者与事件内容。

附注：

学习如何玩游戏与学习语言其实非常相像。玩家必须逐渐把握表达层面与内容层面的实质与形式，并获得有关连接（即“书写”）与理解（即“阅读”）的技能。

《星球大战：银河战场》虽然维持着《帝国时代》的内容形式（即价值系统），但是却彻底改变了后者的表达层面，并使用自己的元素数组（《星球大战》宇宙中的生存者与事件）而重新添加了AoE这一元素（即内容形式）。

我们可以基于表达层面和内容层面（它们可能只是一张草图）去分析游戏设计文件。换句话说，它们也是符号体系的草图，即是一种语言。

我们总是很容易忽视有关语言连接的一些非生产性实例。就像在石头剪刀布中那样。如果玩家双方同时伸出了相同的手势（比如“石头”vs.“石头”），那么结果就没有任何意义了，因为元素背后的价值系统拒绝去比较相同的元素。

游戏中的跨媒体性已经成为了一种可能，因为符号体系的灵活性已经能够使用各种物质去作为表达层面中的实质内容。的确，一种版本的石头剪刀布可以将玩家的手当成实质去传达认知形式，而其它版本也能够使用卡片或声音作为实质。

尽管规则会详细地明确游戏中的各种元素，但是它也会留出一些空间让玩家自己推断。这就意味着玩家将努力去填补所有规则未提及的内容，就像读者会想办法填补读者反映理论中所存在的缺口那样。

（本文为游戏邦/gamerboom.com编译，拒绝任何不保留版权的转载，如需转载请联系：游戏邦）

Rock Paper Scissors: A Linguistic Approach

by Altug Isigan

This essay is a sketch for a linguistics-based approach to games. It is “under construction”, which means that I will update it from time to time.

A bit of Theory

According to danish linguist Louis Hjelmslev, language has two layers:

Expression Plane

Content Plane

The expression plane is the plane of signifiers, whereas the content plane is the plane of signifieds.

Both these planes have a form and a substance, which gives us the following pairs:

Form of Expression

Substance of Expression

Substance of Content

Form of Content

A sign is the connotative sum of a signifier and a signified (not to be confused with direct reference, which would imply they are connected organically), which means that every sign has a content and expression plane and that each of its planes has a form and a substance.

Rock-Paper-Scissors as Language

The form of expression consists of the materialized forms that are utilized and recognized as the array of signifiers of the language. In Rock-Paper-Scissors, this array of signifiers consists of the gestures |rock|, |scissors| and |paper|.

The substance of expression is the material substance that is utilized to shape the forms that are recognized as the array of signifiers of the language. In Rock-Scissors-Paper, these are the player’s hands.

The substance of content is the catalogue of positive meanings that qualify as the signifieds of the language. In Rock-Paper-Scissors, these are semes like “rock”, “paper” and “scissors”.

The form of content is the arrangement of semes according to an internal order that creates a system of values that are comparable and replacable. In Rock-Paper-Scissors, this is the system that holds up the intransitive relationships between the semes “rock”, “paper” and “scissors”. Indeed, as values, “rock”, “paper” and “scissors” can be replaced with each other, and they can also be compared in terms of whether one is superior to the other.

The content plane can be completely imaginary. One may invent a number of substances of content (a “Pac Man”, a “Pinky”, a “maze”, “dots”  etc), and then give this content a form, that is, design a value system that defines how these substances stand in relation to each other. The expression plane however, must be material, because it is only through its material form through which the world of semes and their underlying value system (the way we have to evaluate their relationship, and interprete the resulting states) can be made “visible” to someone. Usually, a rulebook, or a tutorial may be employed in order to “narrate” the content plane and the value system that sets up their network of relationship. But playing (seeing the game in action) serves the same purpose, because from the chain of signifiers (from the ways they are articulated, and from the change of game states that result from this articulation), one can infer the content plane and how its elements are related to each other.

Articulation and Signification

When a player poses the gesture |rock|, she simultaneously mobilizes both planes together with both their forms and substances: Her hand is the substance that “shapes” the gesture |rock|and thereby puts forward a form that is recognized as a valid signifier within the language. This form, once posed, does not only “call” the seme “rock”, but also the value “rock”, which gains its value through its relationship to other semes as maintained by the internal system, that is, the intransitive relationship between semes, which rules the ways they must be evaluated when put against each other.

Once the opposing player poses a counter-gesture (let’s say |paper|), a productive articulation of signs takes place, which enables a “reading” or interpretation: “Rock versus Paper. Paper wins.”

Lizard Spock

RPS Lizard Spock, a version expanded to include the signs Lizard and Spock to the existing sign system (or language) of RPS, alters through this both the array of signifiers and the array of signifieds. On the expression plane, only new forms have been added (the gestures |lizard| and |spock|), whereas the substance of expression, hands, remains the same. On the content plane however, things seem to become a bit more complex, especially when considering the form of content. In terms of substance, only the two semes “lizard” and “spock” have been added, but the truly significant change can be observed in the internal system that integrates the added semes as replacable and comparable values. Once articulated during play, new “readable” and meaningful sequences of signs emerge.

A Classification of Rules

Rules of Substance

These rules specify the substances that can be used to “carry” the forms that are recognized as signfiers within the system. For example in professional sports, one may come across very strict rules in regard to existents, such as the weight, radius, air pressure, and material of a football. However, kids would often use a tin can or any other object they see fit as a “football”. In Rock-Paper-Scissors, people often go by simply using their hands as the carriage/substance.

Rules of Form

These rules specify the parametres and traits that a form must possess in order to be recognized as a valid signifier within the system. Forms may be subject to standards (as it is the case in professional chess), however, one can often see variations in style and theme (like in a Star Wars themed set of chess figures). Quite often style and theme variations may push the limits of standards in regard to form. In Rock-Paper-Scissors, only three gestures with clearly distinguishable features are recognized as forms/signifiers.

Rules of Content

These rules delineate the range of existents and events in the game. The array of units in a RTS; the array of actions, such as kick or dodge in a fighting game. In Rock-Paper-Scissors, the rules of content limit the number of existents to three (the existents “rock”, “paper” and “scissors”), and the action to one: “attack”.

Rules of Value

The range of operators and the set of rules that specifies the arrangement of semes around these operators. These rules hold up a system of values against which relations between content elements can be measured, and a state of affairs expressed. In Rock-Paper-Scissors there is a single operator (“>”) which sets up an intransitive relationship between the semes “rock”, “scissors” and “paper”. When two gestures are posed against each other, they can be evaluated, and a state of affairs can be “read”.

Rules of Association

Rules that specify what form is to be associated with what content. In Rock-Paper-Scissors, the gesture |V| must be associated with the seme “scissors”. Many games are very strict in regard to association, since avoiding ambiguity seems to be a major concern in most games. However, many games also feature a “joker” or “wild card”, which allows the player to associate this form/signifier with a seme of her desire.

Rules of Articulation

The rules in regard to how signifiers must be articulated and arranged in respect to time and space. These rules bring an order to the signifiers that can be read as a state of affairs. They could be also called compositional rules. In its broadest sense, a standart game of football asks players to articulate their actions within the borders of a football field, and within the time frame of 90 minutes. Chess, on the other hand, provides different options for use of space and time.

The space in which articulation takes place must be seen twofold: On one hand, it is a format, that is, it provides a general frame in which articulation must take place, just like a sheet of paper or the frame of a painting, within which expressive forms (letters, words, lines, dots etc) must remain in order to be counted as part of the expression. On the other hand it also specifies rules for placement of signifiers within this format, that is, there may be measures that ensure that signifiers are placed according to a certain “reading line” or compositional aspect: A chess pawn may be moved anywhere within the “format” of the chess board, yet it would need to be placed within the confines of a  square as well, and not at a line at which two squares intersect, or there would arise ambiguity in regard to how to evaluate the relationship between signifiers, and it would be impossible to “read” the game state.

Different classes of rules, and also rules within the same class will “work together” to shape existents and events.

A Few Remarks

Learning to play a game can be likened to learn a language. A player gradually grasps the relationship between the substance and form of the expression and content plane, and gains skills in both articulation (“writing”) and interpretation (“reading”).

Star Wars: Galactic Battlegrounds can be seen as a game that basically kept the form of content (the value system) of Age of Empires as it is, changing the expression plane almost entirely, and overwriting the array of semes of AoE (the substance of content) with its own array of semes (the existents and events of the Star Wars universe).

Game design documents could well be analysed based on the expression and content planes that they are a sketch of. In other words, they are also sketches of a sign system, a language.

We often witness non-productive instances of articulation in languages. This can be the case in Rock-Paper-Scissors, too. If both players pose the same gesture (lets say |rock| versus |rock|), no meaning, that is, “meaninglessness” is produced due to the value system underlying the semes,  which denies a comparison between the same semes, and hence, doesn’t allow for meaning to emerge.

Transmediality in games becomes possible because of the flexibility of a sign system in employing varying materials as the substance of its expression plane. Indeed, one version of Rock-Paper-Scissors could be based on players hands as the substance to deliver its recongized forms, whereas another version would use cards or sounds as its substance.

While rules may specify aspects of a game in great detail, it may leave many things to be infered by the player. This means that players may fill in the gaps in regard to things which aren’t mentioned, just as readers would fill in such gaps according to reader-response theory. (source:GAMASUTRA)