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未来游戏或提升人类基本行为能力

发布时间:2011-10-05 09:13:54 Tags:,,,

作者:Jim Cummings

数年来,我对控制系统的想法一直也很感兴趣,即通常包含人类控制者、机器和二者之间的调整反馈的信息交流和控制系统。对我而言,这个系统中最有趣的部分是它们能够增强用户基本能力的作用。早期的人机系统对人类身体机能的扩展可以通过控制者来实现,但是随后的系统(游戏邦注:尤其是随着计算机技术的崛起)已经能够扩展我们的基本认知能力,包括注意、感知、记忆容量和检索以及计算等。

但是,现有科技以及我们同它们的互动正迅速发生改变。我们的设备已经逐渐变得普及、可移动且相互连接,尤其是媒体和交流技术方面。而且,它们逐渐结合传感器技术,向我们呈现与个人相关的可控信息。考虑到这些趋势,我预测我们正处在人机系统革新的时期,系统扩展的不只是移动、感知和记忆之类的能力,而且还包括动机和问题解决等方面。而且,我认为与其他类型的领域或技术相比,游戏更能够驱动此类系统的发展和普及。

控制论——基本原则

控制论是在20世纪40年代末期在数学天才Norbert Wiener的努力下崛起的理论领域。Wiener早期研究过生理动态平衡、神经系统科学和刚刚出现的电子计算机,受到了很深的影响,所以他对自动化和“思考机器”的想法很感兴趣。在研究这些课题时,Wiener以自身为模型研究循环输入的本质,即信息如何被感知(输入)、比较(处理)然后重新输入到相同的初始功能中。

广义上来说,控制论是理解互动或反应参与方以及他们之间关系的系统。但是,Wiener的研究特别针对人机互动系统。这是由于他当时的工作专注的是防空武器系统。Wiener发现,操作此类枪支时,武器的开火需要大量的计算才能实现。这种运算对士兵而言是个极大的负担,会影响到他精确成功地进行射击。Wiener认为这种情况下就需要更为复杂的系统,士兵和机器各司其职。作为对上述问题的解决方案,他提出将计算过程转移到系统的机器成分中,这样便可以实现快速运算,提供更加精确的防空弹道轨迹。反过来,士兵就可以花更多的时间来瞄准和开火。

这个过程的关键就在于消极反馈的想法。基于他在人类生理学方面的研究,Wiener理解消极反馈可以作为系统的调整功能。在人体中,有专门的同态调节器可以调整生理条件,从而实现和维持理想的身体状况(游戏邦注:如体温和呼吸频率等)。Wiener相信可以在人体外构建额外的同态调节器,能够测量出其他类型活动的当前和理想状态的差异。正是这种想法引发出控制系统的概念,用户可以通过对系统中机器成分的使用得以扩展突破身体界限,调整反馈从机器进入人体从而可以调整人类的行为和随后的输入。

赛博格(电子人)发展现状

尽管Wiener的发现能够对交流理论、神经科学、医药和电子工程等各种领域产生影响,但是控制论生物的概念对多数人来说依然是科幻小说中的东西。但是,我们或许会注意到现实中存在某些半控制生物。比如,退伍军人或其他终生残疾的人接受的肢体移植使用的便是假肢和植入传感器(游戏邦注:但是与那些科幻小说中描述的东西相比,这些实例似乎并不能引起人们的兴趣,尽管毫无疑问这是科技上的丰功伟绩,但是这些设备通常只是恢复人体原本的能力而不是提升)。随后也出现了许多可穿戴的计算设备,比如Thad Starner和Steve Mann,有些人将计算技术与自身相结合以提升他们在日常互动中计算和交流的能力。

Gyron-and-Cyborgs-Sketch(from atombat)

Gyron-and-Cyborgs-Sketch(from atombat)

换句话说,现实世界中的“赛博格”到目前为止还并不多。这种情况就像20年前的虚拟现实(游戏邦注:下文简称“VR”)。当时尽管这种概念已经在科幻小说中出现,但是事实上只有极其有限的人居住在VR环境中。有趣的是,尽管Edward Castronova预测VR不可实现,但是它最终出现在社会上,某些关键的虚拟世界将VR从科幻小说中转移出来。

同样,我预测将会是游戏让日常控制技术得以普及。虽然计算机技术的范围和价格的削减以及传感器的风行肯定会对此做出贡献,但是游戏将使得人机系统广泛地为人们所接受,并且使其商业化成为可能。原因如下:游戏能够调整我们在现实世界中的直觉;游戏能够驱动软件朝适合用户情感状态的方向发展;游戏能够将乏味的数据转变成动机化的相关信息。

游戏校准人们对事物运行方法的直觉

视频游戏是控制者行为系统,其中用户的输入根据反馈进行调整以期实现预想的目标。在游戏中,人类玩家进入虚拟环境并与之交流,学习游戏内机制的运转方法。玩家将输入传送到系统中,根据他们在特定任务中所接触到的视觉、音频和触觉反馈做出回应。视频游戏玩法便是其中的控制论,通过对不同战略进行反复试验,机器可以帮助提升玩家解决谜题和任务内在障碍的能力,感觉任务就在于机器本身内部。

在Will Wright之类的设计师身上,游戏玩法的控制性本质并没有消失。在2007 TED演讲中,Wright公开一部自制的赛博格设备,他解释称自己并没有把游戏视为单纯的玩乐环境,他认为也可以作为提升和调整技能的特殊玩具。在演示会后发布《孢子》时,他表示就像望远镜可以放大我们的视觉感受一样,电脑模拟也可以通过空间和时间重新校准和规划我们的直觉。Wright的观点是游戏设计不仅允许玩家在自己的想象中构建世界,而且还可以通过简单有趣的模拟工具将想象剥离成为实体形式。从这个方面上来说,他称那些包含相对较广的“可能性空间”以供玩家探索和测试的游戏能够增强我们的想象力和创造力。

事实上,这正是潜藏于Jane McGonigal近期公布的《EVOKE》游戏体验下的前提。如果模拟的可能性空间能够反映某些现实世界的条件,它便能够让用户有机会批判性地审视和进入他们从未接触过的情况。更重要的是,用户接收到的反馈或许随后可用于产生虚拟现实的动作和决定。

当然,模拟的逼真程度成为很明显的问题,也就是说,虚拟所呈现出的现实世界有多精确。在它们的模拟中,游戏含蓄地表达了现实世界运转的方法(游戏邦注:这是说服性游戏的基础想法),但是谁能够担保游戏所提供的模型没有受到设计师个人想法的影响?而且除了意图和想法造成的不真实外,范围也有可能导致不真实。比如,《孢子》最终离我们而去,并没有提供像宣传所说的那种游戏体验。

但是,这种方法对那些模拟系统较少涉及整个生物和文化演变的游戏仍然有用。比如,像《Foldit》和《EteRNA》之类的游戏关注点是更为具体的生物现象——蛋白质和RNA折叠结构。两款游戏都使用谜题来教授用户潜在的结构样式,然后让这些玩家构思新设计,有些结果随后被用在现实世界实验室的人工合成和测试中。

Foldit(from blogs.discovermagazine.com)

Foldit(from blogs.discovermagazine.com)

《Foldit》之类的游戏展示的是,尽管它们使用虚拟场景来校准玩家的直觉,但是游戏能够给用户适当的反馈,以昭示他们对现实世界问题和谜题提出的创造性解决方案。基于模拟的反馈能够影响现实世界的行为,此类游戏的增加是游戏能够为控制系统的普及做出贡献的方式之一。

新游戏将考虑用户状态

再次强调,控制关系的关键就在于使用调整反馈来最小化当前和目标行为间的差距。通常来说,这意味着使用机器反馈来根据任务需求优化行为(游戏邦注:任务可以是现实和虚拟的)。尽管这并非Wiener原先所构想的,但是根据反馈来调整任务需求已符合用户行为也是种可以采用的方法。

这便是胜利计算所采用的方法,新兴的次领域HCI认识到交流是双向的。这种设计依赖的是“生物控制循环”,这是个双阶段的过程,系统首先使用生理度量计量用户的生理状态。随后,如果发现此类状态并非所需要的,就相应地调整任务的本质。比如,程序可能发现用户在某个软件任务中遭遇挫折,它或许就会提供帮助性的线索。或者,如果它发现用户即将感到厌烦,可能就会相应增加任务的复杂性。

适应性计算设计在主要关注用户情感投入的案例中最有用,比如自动驾驶系统和其他程序。但是,与此类设计相关(游戏邦注:或可认为存在市场潜力)的另一个领域显然是游戏。

当然,在游戏中动态进行难度调整并非新想法,许多不同的设计已经尝试结合用户的行为来设定任务的挑战性,从而增加“优化体验”的可能性。但是,多数DDA方法目前依赖游戏内的行为度量来决定技能和能力,生理计算依靠的则是用户的情感状态,这才是在设计时真正能够产生影响的东西。而且,多数DDA设计以回合和关卡作为时间领域来运行,胜利游戏则会实时监测用户的状态。如此看来,生理计算或许会产生全新的具有吸引力的动态游戏设计。

因为游戏可以提供反馈以校准用户的技能和直觉,用户可能也会在短时间内定期提供反馈以校准游戏挑战。如果是这样的话,未来的游戏玩法可能是有着两条独立却重叠的定期反馈渠道的实时控制系统。

传感器数据+游戏背景=行为改变

尽管游戏中含有人机反馈循环,但是到目前为止讨论的例子在本质上依然是玩家坐在屏幕前玩游戏。也就是说,他们产生的想象并不类似于RoboCop或Borg。但是,廉价、移动和简单的传感技术的出现可能会让我们的发展更近一步。

除了可以穿戴在身体上不同部位的各种设备外,传感器已经进入了我们的家庭、汽车、手机和其他各种电器。结果,个人的几乎所有状态或者可以想象到的行为度量都能够以数据的形式呈现,包括位置、睡眠样式、热量摄入、驾驶习惯、工作效率和快乐程度等。在这种情况下,传感器已经扩展了我们的感知和注意的基本能力,使我们回想起反馈信息。更重要的是,Wired近期发表的文章表明,那些积极收集和处理此类数据的人可能会了解人们的喜欢和生活方式。

Quantified Self运动便由此类人群组成,这些人使用各种行为度量来定义自己。但是,在输出图表带来的新颖性褪去之后,传感器的用户得到的也只是一堆数据而已。随后他们要怎么做完全取决于他们自己。如果人们可以选择盯着满屏的数据或将时间花费在其他媒体体验中的话,人们通常都会选择后者。

传感器数据界面应该从那些更具吸引力的东西中获得暗示。正如我之前所讨论以及Wired文章所提及的那样,游戏或许可以为如何保持用户专注并利用传感器数据提供线索。比如,游戏化战术可以为某些行为结果贴上积极和消极的虚拟标签,这包括现在火热宣传的点数和徽章机制,以及较少被推广的叙事结构和基于角色的团队。这样做的话,就能够增加用户处理传感器反馈数据并根据其做出行动的内在动机。也就是说,用户可能会被怂恿处理实时数据并调整实时行为,以期实现虚拟目标。而且,这些虚拟结果甚至能够以比现实世界结果更高的规律性来运行。

要点就是,背景能够产生影响。正如传感器通过反馈数据增加我们的感知能力,游戏元素可能会提升我们利用这些数据的动机。以触发动机的方式将其背景化(游戏邦注:比如将更具吸引力的用户界面输入对用户来说具有虚拟重要性的系统),这种反馈数据就更有可能触发用户的行为。事实上,人们正逐渐同意这种小型的背景化做法能够产生巨大的效果。

总结

对上文讨论的通过模拟群包、生理计算和无处不在的传感技术这三种趋势来说,行为反馈扮演着重要的角色。而且,用户直觉和技能的校准、优化体验的追求和游戏可玩性内的驱动这三种游戏层面不只与之相关,而且可能会推动将来的发展和普及。如此看来,游戏或许将主导控制系统设计以增强用户的创造力、乐趣和动机。虽然这不会产生能说能跑的赛博格,但是我们有可能会发现某些用于发现和干涉的强大工具。至少,它应该能够产生某些新颖且有趣的游戏体验。

游戏邦注:本文发稿于2011年7月27日,所涉时间、事件和数据均以此为准。(本文为游戏邦/gamerboom.com编译,如需转载请联系:游戏邦

Better, Stronger, Faster: How Games Will Change What We’re Capable Of

Jim Cummings

For a few years now I’ve been interested in the idea of cybernetic systems – that is, systems of information communication and control that typically include a human controller, a machine enhancement, and regulatory feedback between the two. For me the most interesting part of such systems is their ability to augment and amplify basic capacities of the user. While the earliest human-machine systems expanded the physical feats that could be accomplished by their controllers, later systems, particularly with the rise of computing technologies, have come to extend our basic cognitive capacities – those for attention, perception, memory storage and retrieval, and, of course, computation.

Present technologies and our interactions with them, however, are changing rapidly. Our devices – particularly media and communication technologies – are becoming increasingly ubiquitous, mobile, and interconnected. Further, they are increasingly incorporating sensor technologies for presenting us with personally-relevant, actionable information. Considering these trends, I’d suggest that we are at the cusp of a revolution in man-machine systems, one which will amplify not only capacities for things like movement, perception, and memory, but for motivation and problem-solving. And further, I’d argue that gaming – more so than any other type of domain or technology – will be what drives the development and mainstreaming of such systems.

Cybernetics – Foundational Principles

Cybernetics as a theoretical field arose in the late 1940s with the work of math prodigy Norbert Wiener. Heavily influenced by earlier research into the nature of physiological homeostasis and neuroscience, as well as the recent arrival of the electronic computer, Wiener was interested in automation and the idea of “thinking machines.” In approaching these topics, Wiener concerned himself with the nature of looping inputs – that is, how information is sensed (inputted), compared (processed), and then re-inputted into the same initial function.

Broadly speaking, cybernetics is a systems approach to understanding interactive or reactive parties and their relationships. However, Wiener’s work centered on human-machine interactive systems in particular. This was due to his professional focus at the time – anti-aircraft weapon systems. Wiener had noted that operating such guns required a great deal of computation prior to actually firing the weapon. This computational effort on part of the human soldier was taxing, hindering his ability to calibrate a successful shot. Wiener understood this situation in terms of a complex system, one in which soldier and machine each played a role. As a solution to the problem, he proposed shifting the computational effort to the machine element of the system, which could more quickly calculate and provide estimates on aircraft trajectory. In turn, the human soldier would be permitted a greater amount of time to successfully aim and fire a weapon.

Key to this process was the idea of negative feedback. Based on his knowledge of human physiology, Wiener understood negative feedback as serving a regulatory function for a system. – in human bodies, specific homeostats regulate physiological conditions so as to achieve and maintain desirable bodily states (e.g., temperature, respiratory rate, etc.). Wiener believed that additional homeostats might be constructed that exist external to the human body, capable of gauging the differential between current and desired states for other types of performance. It was this thinking that guided his conception of the cybernetic system – a system in which users could extend themselves beyond their physical boundaries through the use of machine components, with regulatory feedback sent from machine to human in order to steer behavior and subsequent input.

So Where Are All the Cyborgs?

While Wiener’s work went on to influence a variety of fields, ranging from communication theory to neuroscience to medicine to electrical engineering, it is science fiction and not science proper that introduces most people to the concept of a cybernetic being. RoboCop, Steve Austin, replicants, Cylons – these are the examples that typically come to mind. Yet, there are certainly less extreme real-life instances of cybernetic beings that we might note. For instance, there are the physically impaired, such as veterans or others suffering from chronic disabilities, who make use of prosthetic limbs and sensory implants [however, compared to their science fiction counterparts, these examples might come off as a bit less enchanting – though unquestionably amazing feats of technology, these devices typically serve to restore natural human abilities rather than enhance them]. Then there are also the few ultra-committed pioneers of wearable computing, like Thad Starner and Steve Mann – individuals who have actively integrated computing technologies into their person in order to enhance their abilities to calculate and communicate in everyday interactions.

In other words, real world “cyborgs” have until now mostly consisted of marginal groups. As such, the situation is comparable to that of virtual reality 20 years ago. Back then, while the concept was a sci-fi staple, very few people in grounded reality were actually inhabiting VR. Interestingly, Edward Castronova has since pointed out that despite all the promise and hype about sensory-immersive VR, it ended up being the social presence and commercial budgets of some key virtual worlds that moved VR from science fiction to the commonplace. MMOs, not helmets.

Similarly, I’d predict that it will be games that bring about the mainstreaming of everyday cybernetic technologies (albeit, as was the case for VR, in forms a bit different than what science fiction has lead us to anticipate). Though the shrinking sizes and price tags of computing tech and the growing preponderance of sensors will certainly contribute to this, games will be what permit man-machine systems to be broadly and widely psychologically engaging and commercially viable. This is because games 1) can calibrate our intuitions about the real world, 2) will drive the development of software that adapts to user emotional states, and 3) can transform boring data into motivationally relevant information.

Games Calibrate Our Intuitions About the Way Things Work

Video games are systems of controlled behavior, in which user input is modified based on feedback in order to reach desired goal states. Within games, human players engage a virtual environment, communicating with it so as to learn how in-game mechanics operate. The player sends input into the system, in response to which he or she is greeted with visual, audio, and sometimes tactile feedback on their performance on a given task. Video gameplay is cybernetic in that, through the repetition of trial and error of different strategies, the machine helps enhance the player’s ability to solve the puzzles and obstacles inherent to the task at hand. It just so happens that the task at hand is within the machine itself.

This cybernetic nature of gameplay is not lost on designers like Will Wright. Back in a 2007 TED talk, sporting a home-made cyborg outfit, Wright explained how he views games not merely as play environments, but as special toys that can hone and tune particular skills. While demo’ing the then-upcoming Spore, he suggested that, just as a telescope can augment our sense of sight, computer simulations can recalibrate and re-map our intuitions across vast scales of both space and time. Wright’s point was that game designs (particularly those like his) can allow players to not only build worlds in their imagination, but to also extract that imagination into physical form through easy, fun simulation tools. In this manner, he argues, games – particularly those that include a relatively large “possibility space” for the player to explore and test – can amplify our capacity for imagination and creativity.

And indeed, this is the premise essentially underlying Jane McGonigal’s more recent efforts with game experiences like EVOKE. If the possibility space of a simulation is made to reflect certain real world conditions, it permits the user a chance to critically examine and engagingly play with a situation he or she might not regularly access. What’s more, the feedback users receive may then be useful in generating actions and decisions in the real-world counterparts of the simulation.

Of course, the obvious issue becomes the fidelity of the simulation – that is, how accurately the real world is mapped into the virtual representation. In their simulations, games implicitly make arguments about the way the real world works (this is the basic idea of persuasive games) – yet who is to say the model offered isn’t biased towards the perspective of a given designer? And in addition to infidelity by intention, there is the possibility of infidelity due to scope. For example, Spore eventually came and went, catching a lot of flack for offering a game experience that didn’t truly give players the chance to inhabit the role of a not-so-blind watchmaker. But honestly, any game, even one as ambitious as Spore, would be hard-pressed to offer a possibility space sufficiently expansive to calibrate intuitions about things like evolutionary systems and still consist of meaningful feedback on player decisions.

Such an approach, however, could still certainly be useful for games meant to simulate systems less encompassing than the entirety of biological and cultural evolution. For instance, games like Foldit and EteRNA focus on much more specific biological phenomena – protein and RNA folding structures, respectively. Each game uses puzzles to teach the user about potential structural patterns, then challenges these players to come up with new designs, some of which are then actually synthesized and tested in real world labs.

Games such as Foldit and McGonigal’s show that, though they use virtual settings to calibrate the intuitions of players, games can give users the appropriate feedback for contributing creative solutions to real world problems and puzzles. The proliferation of games like these – in which simulation-based feedback can influence real world practices – is just one way in which gaming will contribute to the mainstreaming of cybernetic systems.

New Games Will Accommodate User States

Again, key to the cybernetic relationship is the use of regulatory feedback to minimize the difference between current and target performance. Typically, this means using machine feedback to better fit performance to task demand (tasks which, as discussed above, may be real or virtual). However, though not what Wiener originally conceived, an alternate approach could just as well be to employ feedback to better fit task demand to user performance.

This is exactly the approach taken in physiological computing, an emerging subfield of HCI that recognizes communication to be a two-way street, one in which machines, not just humans, can behave adaptively and proactively. Such designs rely on a “biocybernetic loop”, a two-stage process in which the system first uses physiological measures to gauge the user’s psychological state and then, if flagging this state as undesirable, adjusts the nature of the task accordingly. For example, a program may detect that a user is frustrated with a certain software task, at which point it may offer a helpful hint. Or, if it detected the user to be bored, it might increase the complexity of the task.

Adaptive computing designs will be most useful in cases where the emotional engagement of the user is a primary concern. For example, auto-pilot systems and other programs in which it’d be nice to amplify or down-tune user attention and emotional investment as needed. However, another domain in which the relevance (and market potential) of such designs is obvious is gaming.

Granted, the idea of dynamic difficulty adjustment in games is not a new one – many different designs have attempted to incorporate user performance into setting task challenge, so as to increase the chance of “optimal experience”. However, whereas most methods of DDA currently rely on in-game performance metrics as proxies for skill and ability, physiological computing relies on correlates of the user’s emotional state, which is what ultimately matters when designing for user enjoyment. Further, while most DDA designs operate in the time domain of rounds and levels, physiological gaming can monitor user states in real-time, allowing for a much more granular detection of which precise elements of a task are eliciting a given response. As such, physiological computing may open the door for a whole new level of dynamic, engaging game designs.

So, just as games can provide feedback to calibrate user skills and intuitions, users may soon come to regularly provide feedback that calibrates game challenges. In this sense, the future of gameplay may be real-time cybernetic systems with two separate, overlapping channels of regulatory feedback.

Sensor Data + Game Context = Behavior Change

Though they certainly include human-machine feedback loops, the examples discussed so far are still basically a user sitting at a screen playing a game. That is, images they stir up don’t quite resemble RoboCop or the Borg. However, another growing trend – the emergence of cheap, mobile, and simple sensing technologies – may bring us a step closer to such beings.

In addition to the variety of devices that can be worn on different parts of the body, sensors have crept their way into our homes, cars, phones, and various other appliances. As a result, an individual that is so inclined can be presented with data on almost any status or behavior metric imaginable – location, sleep patterns, caloric intake, driving habits, productivity, level of happiness, etc.. In this manner, sensors are already augmenting our basic capacities for perception and attention, allowing us to reflect on feedback information otherwise beyond our level of conscious awareness. What’s more, as a recent article from Wired notes, for those that actively collect and process this data, it can offer real insights into one’s habits and lifestyle.

The Quantified Self movement is comprised of just such people. Ranging from the mildly curious to the fanatically narcissistic, these individuals track themselves on various behavioral metrics. However, after the initial novelty of cool output diagrams and charts wears off, the sensor user is basically just left with a pile of data. What they then do with it is up to them. And when allowed to choose between staring at a screen of data or spend that time on just about any other media experience, the average person is going to more often than not choose the latter.

To successfully compete for our attention, sensor data interfaces should take cues from those more alluring alternatives. As I’ve previously discussed and as the Wired article notes in passing, games may provide clues for how to keep users engaged with sensor data long enough to do something with it. For instance, gamification tactics – including the now over-hyped mechanics of points and badges, as well as the less commonly promoted elements of narrative structure and role-based teams – can attach positive and negative virtual consequences to certain behavioral outcomes. In doing so, it can increase the intrinsic motivation of the user to process and act upon sensor feedback data. That is, users may be enticed to process real data and adjust real behaviors in order to pursue virtual goals. Further, these virtual consequences can even operate with greater regularity and at higher time resolutions than real world consequences, factors which any reinforcement theorist will tell you are key for conditioning changes in behavior.

The point is that context matters. Just as sensors augment our perceptual capacities through feedback data, game elements may enhance our motivation to actually make use of that data. By contextualizing it in a manner that is motivationally relevant – that is, if given a more engaging user interface and inputted into a system with virtual significance to the user – such feedback data may have a greater chance of steering user behaviors. Indeed, there is a growing consensus that such small, contextual “nudges” can lead to “disproportionately huge effects.”

Summary

For all three trends discussed above – crowdsourcing through simulation, physiological computing, and ubiquitous sensor technology – performance feedback plays a key role. Moreover, in all three cases certain aspects of gaming – the calibration of user intuitions and skills, the pursuit of optimal experiences, and the motivational pull inherent to gameplay – are not only relevant, but may actually drive future development and uptake. In so doing, gaming may mainstream cybernetic systems designed to “amplify” user creativity, enjoyment, and motivation. Though this may not lead to walking, talking cyborgs, it is possible we’ll find ourselves with some powerful new tools for discovery and intervention. At the very least, it should result in some new and fun play experiences. (Source: Motivate Play)


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